Mrs. Hiveley's Composer Page
 
Medieval music is heavily colored by religious themes. Most of the surviving music from this period   is in the form of church music: masses, cannons, and votives. Music during this time was not based on major or minor concepts of tonality, but rather on the four primary medieval modes: Aeolian, Dorian, Lydian, and Mixolydian. Ionian and Phrygian modes were also sometimes used.
 
Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361)
French poet, composer, and theorist, de Vitry spent much of his life in and around the city of Paris. De Vitry's greatest contribution to music is his theoretical work on rhythm and meter, which helped establish the notational conventions that are still in use today. De Vitry also invented the use of red notes in musical notation to distinguish changes in metrical or transpositional placement. De Vitry's works are included in the manuscript copy of Le Roman de Fauvel, an important 14th century satire.		 Guilliaume de Machaut (c.1300-1377)
French medieval composer of polyphonic vocal music. One of the most important composers of his time, and the medieval composer for whom the largest body of work remains extant. A clergyman, he nevertheless wrote a great deal of secular music. His La Messe de Nostre Dame (Our Lady's Mass) is the longest single medieval piece to survive, and is also the first known work to set the entire mass ordinary to music. His most famous work is probably "Ma Fin est Mon Commencement" ("My end is my Beginning"), a crab cannon.
Guilliaume Du Fay (c.1400-1474)
 French Early-Renaissance composer, important for his 
vocal works, both sacred and secular. Late in life, Du Fay was 
the most famous and respected composer in Europe, not only because of his musical talent, but because he was highly intelligent and well-educated. He wrote a great deal of music, including many chansons, and chanson-like secular works.
John Dunstable (c.1390-1453)
French pre-Renaissance composer and chapel singer. Most of his works are sacred, much of it votive. He wrote approximately 50 works, only 5 of which are secular.

  
The Renaissance period is characterized by a movement away from subservience to God, and spends more time dealing with the human condition. As in art and literature, music of this period dwells mostly on the triumph of mankind as an independent being, capable of many great advances. The ideas of ancient civilizations, most especially those of Rome and Greece, were resurrected during this era, and often incorporated into musical ideas.  Polyphony grew in complexity and scope during this period, and counterpoint evolved to its highest form. While most of the music written in this period is still vocal, instrumentation began to become important in accompanying vocal lines. Most especially, interplay between vocal and instrumental melodic ideas became a favorite form of counterpoint. 
 
Josquin Des Pres (c.1440-1521)
 French Renaissance composer of motets and masses. Well-known for his secular works, he was the foremost composer of Masses of his time, as well.
Early in his career, Josquin earned his living as a 
singer, before he became known for his composition abilities as well. One of Josquin's key innovations was the idea of pervading imitation, where each section of text would be given a theme, which would be reintroduced by various vocal lines at different 
times. This technique was used consistently throughout the rest of the common practice period. 
John Taverner (c.1490-1545)
John Taverner was the most important English composer during the first part of the 16th century. Taverner's most significant works are masses, and votive antiphons. These display the traits typical of English music at the time. His masses contain no Kyrie, and some phrases are missing from the Credo. Often, Taverner used a melodic fragment through imitation or cannon.
 
 

Thomas Tallis (1505-1585)
British Renaissance composer of sacred vocal music, especially service music for the Anglican church.  He wrote the hymn
tune known as "Tallis' Cannon",
as well as the motet Spem in Alium, for eight five-part choirs.
Andrea Gabrieli (1510-1586)
Italian Renaissance composer, and uncle of Giovani Gabrielli. An accomplished organist, he became the first organist at the church of San Marco in 1585. His greatest contribution to music is probably as teacher, his students included his nephew Giovanni, as well as Hans Leo Hassler. 
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina  (1525-1594)
Italian Renaissance composer of sacred vocal music, including the Missa Papae Marcelli (Pope Marcellus Mass), Lamentations, and the
motet Hodie Christus Natus Est. His setting of the liturgical text "Gloria Patri" later became the music 
for the hymn "The Strife is O'er, the Battle Done."
Orlando di Lasso (1532-1594) Also known as Roland de Lassus, di Lasso was a Fracno-Flemish Renaissance composer. He wrote a great deal of sacred and secular vocal choral music. He is most famous for his motets.
William Byrd (1543-1623)
British Renaissance composer of keyboard works (My Ladye Nevells Virginal Booke) and sacred vocal music. Nothing is known about Byrd's early life, 
 but he probably studied with Tallis at some point.  Byrd composer music for both the Anglican and Catholic churches during his career, and was a leading composer of Psalm settings, and anthems.
Thomas Morely (1557-1602)
British Renaissance composer of madrigals. He also wrote books of musical instruction. 


  
Baroque music tends to be much more rational and reasoned in its approach than more modern works. Stemming from the idea of human perfectibility, the Baroque era introduced such innovations as even tuning, figured bass, and opera.  Rhythmic ideas also began to take on importance in this era. Bar lines appeared for the first time in printed works, and dotted rhythms especially were used more and more frequently. Instruments came into their own in this era, more and more often, vocal parts were totally absent in music of this time. (Though much vocal music was still written.) 
 
Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) Claudio Monteverdi was born in Cremona, Italy. His father sent him to music school at a young age, and by the time he was sixteen, Claudio was already 
 publishing motets and canzonas. Monteverdi had no permanent work until 1589 when he was hired as a string player at the court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga, in Mantua. In 1601, Monteverdi was elevated to maestro di cappella, by then he had already established himself as an important musician in Italy.  Within a few years, Monteverdi had begun composing operas, his first, L'Orfeo in 1607, followed by L'Arianna in 1608. Monteverdi continued producing operas, expanding and refining the genre--and much of his influence can be found in all opera, especially Italian opera, for the next hundred years. While many of his works have been lost, including almost all of his religious works, his impact on the Baroque era--and the rest of the Common Practice Period--was profound. In addition to writing many operas, he also wrote motets, cantatas, and chamber works for both instruments and voices. Monteverdi's impact on music--and opera--resonated for the next three hundred years or more.
Heinrich Schutz (1585-1672)
German baroque composer of sacred, polyphonic music, including psalm settings, and collections of Sacred Symphonies.  In his formative
years, Schutz studied with Giovanni Gabrieli Schutz was an organist who also composed a number of stage works (unfortunately, all have been lost). While interested in stage settings, Schutz visited Italy and met with Claudio Monetverdi. Unfortunately, Schutz's most productive period coincided with Saxony's entrance into the thirty years war--both drawing attention away from musical innovation, and causing many works to be lost when manuscripts were destroyed by the conflict. In addition, musical resources were not at a high priority, leaving many of Schutz's works unpublished.  Many of Schutz best, and most lasting works come from his later years, after his retirement from court.

Deitrich Buxtehude (1637-1707)
At the time Buxtehude was born, his hometown was a part of Denmark. The nationality of that district changed many times during his life, but Buxtehude always considered himself a Dane. There is only sparse information about his life until 1668, when he became chief organist at a church in Lubeck--where he stayed for the rest of his life.  As a result of his church position, almost all of Buxtehude's work is sacred, and most of it is for organ. In fact, his organ music greatly influenced J.S. Bach. He also wrote several cantatas, and was constantly looking for ways to expand the musical activities of the church. He began weekly concerts there, and gained a great amount of fame from them. His oratorios and other vocal works were seen and admired by musicians from all over 
Germany.
Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
The greatest English composer of the Baroque period, Purcell was a master organist before he branched out into composition.  Purcell wrote a wide range of
vocal and organ music, including the opera Dido and Annias, as well as cantatas for royal celebrations, including Ode for St. Ceceilia's Day (1692)
Purcell had a unique understanding of the English language, and how it could be employed in Baroque textures. His vocal music often serves to illustrate the lyric being sung, and his music is often characterized by a single word, or syllable being stretched into a long run of notes. Purcell is also known for the dance like quality of much of his music, which often had syncopated rhythms--keeping the piece in constant motion.
Purcell was the greatest musical influence in England until Handel moved there from Germany--and the greatest native composer in England until at least the late 1800's.
Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725)
Italian Baroque composer, and father of Domenico. Although mainly known for his operas, his output included masses, cantatas and tocattas for harpsichord.

 
Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)
Vivaldi was born in Venice, and when old enough, entered the clergy.  Due to illness, Vivaldi was not able to perform church services--he simply did not have the voice.  Instead, he offered 
his services at a school for orphans, the Pio Ospedale della Pieta, where he served as maestro di violino. It was here that Vivaldi first began composing, mostly works for strings. Vivaldi himself often performed violin concertos, as a part of regular concerts held at the Ospedale. Vivaldi was widely acclaimed as a virtuoso violinist, and by 1705, he had begun to publish his compositions.  Later in his life, Vivaldi 
Francois Couperin (1668-1733)
The most important French composer between Lully and Rameau, Francois Couperin was nicknamed "le Grand" ("the Great") to distinguish him from 
his uncle Louis, who also composed.  Couperin was, like his father and uncle, an organist and harpsichord virtuoso. By the early 1700's, Couperin was recognized as France's leading composer. Couperin wrote chamber music, as well as some organ works, but his greatest output were his works for harpsichord--for which he composed prodigiously--writing over 230 separate works.  Couperin was also an excellent teacher, and he also wrote an instructional treatise on playing the harpsichord (L'art de toucher le clavecin, 1717). This work was one of the first to discuss the technical aspects of keyboard performance, including fingerings and ornamentation.  Couperin attempted, in many of his works, to bridge the differences in French and Italian styles of music--this is particularly true of his chamber music.
began composing opera. He is known to have written nearly fifty works in that genre, though fewer than half of those have survived.  Despite his interest in opera, however, Vivaldi was, and is today, known primarily for his works for strings--most especially the violin. His most famous work, The Four Seasons, as well as other instrumental works, and vocal music (Gloria), are regarded as his most important productions.  By virtue of Vivaldi's vocation and the color of his hair, he was known as "the red priest".
 
 
Jean-Phillippe Rameau (1683-1764)
French Baroque composer and theorist. Wrote a number of Organ works, in addition to a Treatise on Harmony. Later in his life he also wrote many 
ballets and operas.  Famous for his rivalry with the methods of Lully.
Georg Phillipp Telemann (1681-1767)
Telemann was the youngest of two sons in a moderately prosperous German family. While none of his family were
musicians, Telemann became interested in music at an early age. Despite his mother's disapproval, Telemann studied composition--mostly on his own. Despite the lack of formal music training, Telemann's early works showed great promise, and caught the attention of the mayor of Leipzig, who commissioned additional works. This began Telemann's true employment as a musician. While still studying in Leipzig, Telemann met Handel, and the two became good friends.
Later in life, Telemann became an organist, church music director, and directed many of his own operas.
An extremely prolific composer, Telemann wrote in many major genres. More than 4,000 of Telemann's works still exist today, and his contributions to music theory, and music education are also very important.
George Frederic Handel (1685-1759)
German Baroque composer who later became an English citizen. He was renowned for his Operas
(Agrippina, Rinaldo, Il Pastor Fido, Giulio Cesare, Rodelinda, Berenice, Serse, Acis and Galatea) and oratorios (Messiah, Judas Maccabaeus, Joshus, Jephtha, Semele). He also wrote harpsichord suites, and other instrumental works, including Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
German baroque composer, teacher and organist. As a composer he was distinguished by his mastery of counterpoint.
Among the many works for which he is remembered are his many preludes and fugues for organ, collections of pieces for keyboard, and two and three-part inventions. He also wrote many church cantatas. He was the father of 21 children, including Karl Phillip Emmanuel, Wilhelm Friedemann, Johann Christoph Friedrich, and Johann Christian. Perhaps the most famous composer in the history of western music, his death date denotes the transition from the era of baroque to pre classical musical styles.
 
The pre classical era is not as rigidly defined as the other eras in this catalogue. It ranges from the mid 1730s to about the 1780s, and coexisted with the Baroque era, and eventually became a part of the classical period. Many sources eliminate this era altogether, and include its composers as part of the classical period.  However, this period is distinctive from the classical era in many important ways. During the pre classical period, the piano (or forte piano) was not yet in common usage, so many harpsichord works were still being written and performed. Opera, while growing in influence, was still considered to be a form of "popular" entertainment, rather than an arena for "artistic" composition. Orchestras were still very small, and primarily limited to small groups of string players. Woodwinds were occasionally included, but brass instruments were seldom used.  During this period, instrumental works became accepted as more bona fide compositions, and chamber music evolved into a more important compositional form.
 
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757)
Italian composer of over 550 harpsichord sonatas, as well as a performer, and teacher. Son of Alessandro, Domenico Scarlatti also wrote operas and etudes. 
Much of his life was spent teaching, and his sonatas include many pedagogical works composed primarily for use in musical instruction.
Wilhelm Friedmann Bach (1710-1784)
German pre classical composer and keyboardist. Son of Johann Sebastian.  He is remembered chiefly for his keyboard works, and for the "Little Keyboard 
Book" that his father wrote for him.
Karl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (1714-1788)
German pre classical composer. Son of Johann Sebastian. Remembered primarily for his Sonatas, Fantasias, Rondos, and other works for keyboard,
especially for clavichord, and for his treatise on keyboard playing.
Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (1732-1795)
German pre classical composer and son of Johann Sebastian. Keyboard and vocal music constitute his main output.
Johann Christian Bach (1735-1782)
German pre classical composer. Son of Johann Sebastian. He is remembered most for his operas and orchestral music.
Johann Vaclav Anton Stamitz (1717-57)
Stamitz was a Bohemian composer and violinist. Among his works are chamber music, concertos, symphonies, orchestral trios, cantatas, and liturgical music, including at least one mass. Stamitz helped to innovate the form of the symphony, and is the first composer to consistently apply the four-part Fast-Slow-Minuet/Trio-Fast movement scheme within his symphonies. This form became the standard during the classical period, and is used almost exclusively until after Beethoven
 
The classical era is marked by a movement away from the fugal and imitative styles of Baroque music, and is characterized by exploration of dominant themes. In this period, the opera--made famous by the likes of Handel and Monteverdi--gained influence as an area for "artistic" composition.  Important innovations in instrument construction occurred during this era. The pianoforte, or just piano, became an important instrument, and all but replaced the harpsichord. In addition, bow construction for string instruments changed, giving the string instruments a smoother, more connected sound than with the older style of bow.
Compositional styles also changed during this era. The symphony became the standard form of instrumental showpiece, making other chamber music less important. Fixed compositional schemes were developed, and used almost exclusively--until the advent of Romanticism.  The end of this era is set at the death date of Beethoven--the last great composer to write in the classical style.
 
Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1784)
Gluck was a German composer primarily of symphonies, ballets, and operas.  Although he also 
wrote several trio sonatas, and numerous vocal pieces, he is perhaps best remembered for his work on Orfeo ed Euridice, in 1762. Perhaps Gluck's greatest achievement was his ability to balance music with drama, which helped to bring the opera into its own during the Classical period. 
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
 Haydn was an Austrian composer of symphonies and piano works.  Perhaps his greatest influences on music of
the time were his achievements with the symphony, which he helped to standardize during his career. In all, Haydn composed over 100 symphonies, including the famous London Symphonies. Haydn is also important for his instruction of Ludwig Van Beethoven during the late eighteenth century.
Antonio Salieri (1750-1825)
Salieri was a composer, primarily of operas, in 1778-1804. He also held the position of court composer in Vienna.  Though he wrote more
than 3 dozen operas, his influence as a teacher was also important. Among his pupils were Beethoven, Liszt and Schubert. While much has been hypothesized about Salieri's dealings with Mozart, there is little or no evidence to support that Salieri had any grudge against, or ever did anything to harm Mozart. 
Muzio Clementi (1752-1832)
Born in Rome, Clementi was, in his early years, a composer and performer.  Later in life, he turned to pedagogy and instruction, for which is is 
primarily remembered.  His body of works includes over 100 sonatas, 68 of which are for solo piano. Clementi was largely responsible for bringing the piano into its own, and freeing it from the limitations that were previously applied to the harpsichord. It is thanks to Clementi that later composers, such as Mozart and especially Beethoven, were able to write such elegant works for what was thought, in Clementi's day, to be a very clumsy instrument. 
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
A child prodigy, Mozart was undoubtedly one of the most gifted musicians in music history.  By the
age of 6, he was already a virtuoso harpsichord player, and was composing music. As an adult, Mozart 
helped to refine the idea of the classical symphony, of which he wrote around 50, including the Jupiter Symphony.   He also composed many operas, including Don Giovanni (1787), The Marriage of Figaro (1786), and The Magic Flute (1791). 
Mozart's influence in the art of opera is important 
for its incredible use of interconnection and flow. Mozart showed that an opera could be more than 
a play built to connect songs together, and in 
so doing, provided some of the best operas of the classical period. 
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany, and began taking both Piano and violin lessons at an early age.  Though not the
prodigy that Mozart was, he nevertheless became an accomplished pianist, known especially for his skills at improvisation. Upon arriving in Vienna in the early 1790s, he met Mozart, and studied briefly with Haydn. After a very successful period in Vienna as a performer, Beethoven began publishing his compositions. Unfortunately for his career, however, in the early 1800s, Beethoven had to face the realization that he was growing deaf. 
Despite this setback however, Beethoven continued to compose. The result is some of the finest and most popular classical music ever written. In addition to his 9 symphonies (including #3, Eroica, #5, #6 Pastoral, and #9 Choral) and 32 piano sonatas, Beethoven also composed 5 piano concertos, one opera, and a plethora of chamber music. His work is widely considered to be the transitional cusp to Romanticism, and his music is considered some of the finest application of classical forms ever devised. 
 
The Early Romantic era is distinguished by the idea that "bigger is better". During this period, orchestras grew continually larger and more elaborate, operas grew in size and scope, and pieces in general grew longer and more involved. One of the key ideas of the Romantic period is the introduction program music. During this era, the distinction between the composer and the music began to blur, as the incorporation of emotional themes into the music began to take precedence over the idea of musical objectivity on the part of the composer. 
 
Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826)
One of the leading German composers of the early 19th century, Weber wrote primarily opera, and piano works.  His influence on
stage works cannot be overstated. One of Weber's 
chief accomplishments was the integration of the various artistic elements that make up an opera into 
a single unified production. Weber made extensive 
use of Leitmotif in his music, and blurred the difference between the aria, and recitative in 
his works.  Weber created a trend in operas that, 
with the help of Richard Wagner, helped to redefine 
the genre.
Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864)
Meyerbeer was a master pianist, but he chose not to pursue a career as a performer.  Author of many operas, Meyerbeer spent time in Italy composing
works such as Margherita di Anjou (1820) and Il crociato in Egitto. Meyerbeer's operas are some of the primary influences of grand opera. His stagings were innovative in terms of their realism, and attention to detail. The music alone did not make Meyerbeer's operas famous, but rather, the entire production was a carefully integrated whole. These factors helped contribute to Meyerbeer's success, and ultimately, to his fame as a composer.
Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868)
Rossini was the principal Italian composer working in Italy in the first part of the 19th century. Primarily a composer of opera, he influenced both the Italian as
well as the French styles of Grand Opera. Rossini's most famous work is probably the overture to his opera William Tell.
Franz Peter Schubert (1797-1828)
Early Romantic Composer, primarily of German lieder.  In all, Schubert composed more than 600 songs in this genre.
He also wrote piano sonatas, chamber music, and works for orchestra. His most famous works include the song Erlkonig, and his 8th "unfinished" symphony. He wrote many pieces for piano and orchestra as well. One of the first Romantic composers, he died only a year after Beethoven, at the age of 31.
Louis-Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)
Berlioz was a French composer of opera and symphonies.  Heavily influenced by the work of
Gluck and Beethoven, Berlioz explored the idea of literary themes in his music. Many of his works were inspired by Shakespeare's Hamlet, and Goethe's Faust. His most renowned work is probably his Symphonie Fantastique.
 
Felix Mendelssohn (Bartholdy) (1809-1847)
Mendelssohn was a German composer who adhered more to classical styles than many other Romantic composers.  The one
exception was his affinity for program music, and its use to paint scenes using his music.
Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel (1805-1847)
Fanny was born to a prosperous family of the Jewish intelligentsia in Hamburg, granddaughter of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.  She received
early musical training from her mother, and like her younger brother studied composition with C. F. Zelter, who introduced her to the music of J. S. Bach. From an early age, her musical gifts were evident, and she was strongly encouraged by her family. Her accomplishments were limited, however, by prevailing attitudes against women assuming professional roles in music. Her brother was supportive of her creative endeavors, and he often asked her advice on musical matters. Yet he refused to help in getting her music published out of fear that she would not be able to maintain an active schedule of publication and thus be considered a failure. On the other hand, her husband, the artist Wilhelm Hensel, worked to see her music published. As an adult, Fanny's musical activities focused around the family salon, where music was presented on a weekly basis. The Mendelssohn home was one of the major cultural establishments of Berlin, and Fanny composed the overwhelming majority of her music for these Sunday performances.
Frederic Chopin (1810-1849)
A Polish composer and pianist, Chopin began writing and performing music while still in his youth.  A true composer of the Romantic genre, Chopin's 
works are lush, and extremely thematic. Almost all of his compositions are for piano, and they include numerous nocturnes, sonatas, polonaises, and preludes.  At the keyboard, Chopin was the acknowledged master of his time. Through his music, Chopin helped to dispel the myth that the piano was not a lyrical instrument. Virtually all of Chopin's 
works are showpieces for the piano as a solo instrument.
 
 
Charles Gounod (1818-1893)
French Romantic composer of operas, including Faust, and Romeo et Juliette, as well as other vocal music
Robert Schumann (1810-1856)
Robert Schumann was a German romantic composer, pianist, and was one of the earliest successful music critics. 
Though Schumann spent much of his life fighting the effects of syphilis, which he contracted at an early age, he nevertheless managed to compose highly innovative works, as well as make excellent observations about the music that he heard performed. The widespread rumor that Schumann damaged his hands using a machine designed to strengthen them is most probably not true. More likely the damage to his hands was caused as a result of the treatments Schumann took to alleviate the symptoms of his disease.  Whatever the cause, it is undoubtedly true that Schumann's hands could not take the strain of a performance career, so most of his music was played and championed by his wife, Clara.  Schumann composed primarily keyboard works of varying difficulties, though he also wrote a good deal of chamber music, many lieder, and several symphonies.
Schumann's most enduring trait was his ability to create lyric lines, and beautiful melodies. His music is almost the epitome of the Romantic era. 
Franz Liszt (1811-1886)
A virtuoso pianist, composer and teacher, Liszt is credited with being the first person ever to perform a complete solo recital; in London in 1840.
Liszt used the Romantic ideal to its hilt, when he wrote music that connected with events in his own life. This form of personal expression in music then became ingrained into the Romantic ideal.  In addition to composing, and performing, Liszt also transcribed many works, especially those of Beethoven, for the piano. These transcriptions, while almost impossible for all but the most elite virtuoso, are nevertheless astounding in and of themselves. In transcribing orchestral music for the keyboard, Liszt sought to defy the actual limitations of the instrument.
Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
Wagner was a German author, and composer of operas, or, as he called them, music dramas.  Always innovative, Wagner took
the stage musical work to new heights. Never before had productions been as lavish, pit orchestras as large, and scenery so complex, as in Wagner's works. In addition, he also worked to further the cause of Weber, in striving to unify all aspects of opera.  Wagner's works were monumental. Not only were his productions large in and of themselves, but he also wrote a unified cycle of operas, Der Ring des Nibelungen, which form an incredibly ornate and complex work. The complete cycle takes nearly a week to perform in its entirety.  Under Wagner's influence, opera evolved to become perhaps the single most powerful force in the Romantic repertoire.
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)
Verdi composed some of the greatest operas of the 19th century.  Author of some 28 operas, he also wrote 3 major choral works, and some instrumental music.  Verdi's 
works are mostly serious in nature; he was the master of grand opera. Among his works are such masterworks as Aida, Otello, and Falstaff.  Verdi usually chose the source for his operas from major literary authors, though he did not limit himself to any specific time period, or country. Verdi was very critical of himself when it came to composing his operas. He felt very strongly that the music must intertwine with the dialogue flawlessly, in this he mirrored the ideas of Weber, and Wagner.
Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880)
French Romantic composer of operas and operettas. Popular songs from his works include the Barcarolle from The Tales of
Hoffman, and the Cancan from Orpheus in Hades.
 
 
 
 
Johann Strauss Jr. (1825-1899)
Austrian Romantic composer and conductor, nicknamed the Waltz King.  His compositions include the operettas Die
Fledermaus and The Gypsy Baron and the waltzes By the Beautiful Blue Danube, Voices of Spring, Vienna Life, Artist's Life, Emperor Waltz, and Tales from the Vienna Woods.
Clara Wieck Schumann (1819-96)
Clara Wieck Schumann was a pianist, soprano, and composer.  As a performer, she is famous for
being one of the first to perform concerts as a soloist. In addition, her music in concert was always memorized, a feat that few of her contemporaries practiced.  As a composer, she is sometimes overshadowed by her husband, Robert, but her ability cannot be denied. Most of her compositions are for solo and ensemble piano, although she wrote about 
40 lieder, many of which are quite excellent. 
Anton Bruckner (1824-1896)
An accomplished organist, Bruckner also had experience playing violin from an early age.  While he considered himself primarily a schoolteacher,
Bruckner did not lack in musical skill. Though never a revolutionary composer, Bruckner did emulate the styles of other composers of his century, most notably Wagner.  While much of Bruckner's works are classical in style, he did incorporate romantic elements into his music. In addition, Bruckner's choral works are some of the finest of the 19th century.
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897)
Generally considered to be the greatest composer of the 19th century, after Beethoven, Brahms drew inspiration from Beethoven's works and 
techniques.  Brahms first symphony is sometimes jokingly called "Beethoven's Tenth", and indeed, 
much of Brahms' work expands and elaborates on 
the ideas of the earlier composer. An excellent 
concert pianist, Brahms performed concerts regularly, in addition to composing.  Composer of a great many shorter works, Brahms wrote surprisingly little for full orchestra. Besides his four symphonies, he also wrote two piano concertos, a set of variations, one violin concerto, two serenades, and one double concerto for cello and violin.  One of Brahms key contributions to the symphony is his modification of the form of the third movement in his works.
Alexander Borodin (1833-1887)
Russian Romantic composer, best known for his opera Prince Igor, the Nocturne from his String Quartet No. 2, and the
orchestral work In the Steppes of Central Asia. He was one of the group of Russian nationalistic composers known as The Five.
 
 
Bedrich Smetana (1824-1884)
An accomplished pianist, Smetana was nevertheless unsuccessful as a performer.  Author of a number of operas in Bohemian, Smetana concerned
himself primarily with establishing a nationalistic body of works for his homeland, and did not really care how his music was received outside of Czech boundaries.
 
The Late Romantic era is distinguished by a breakdown of tonal harmony. The use of altered chords and chromaticism increased in popularity, and transitions between sections of music grew more complex and involved.  Often, composers in this era made use of atonal harmonies and sequences to add color to their music. The function of a particular note or chord became less important than how that sound could liven the texture to which it was applied.
 
Camille Saint-Saens (1835-1921)
Saint-Saens was a child prodigy, who was composing by the age of three, and performing in public by the age of seven.  As an adult,
he studied composition, and wrote a variety of orchestral works, in addition to keyboard works. Saint-Saens' compositional style was more relaxed in regard to tonal harmony than many other composers of his day. Saint-Saens used a great deal of chromaticism in his works, that was groundbreaking 
for its time, and foresaw the demise of tonal harmony that was lurking on the horizon.  Saint-Saens wrote 
his finest compositions in the 1870's and 1880's. 
They include his piano concerto #4 in C minor, his violin concerto #3 in B minor, his Symphony #3, (Organ Symphony), in C minor, and his work Le carnaval des animaux (The carnival of animals); 
which has become probably his best known work.
Georges Bizet (1838-1875)
Georges Bizet could have been a concert pianist. Instead, he became a composer.  After studying in Rome for a number of years, Bizet returned to Paris,
and began composing operas. Bizet wrote a number of works in the style of Opera Comique or Comic Opera. His most famous work in this, or any, genre is probably his opera Carmen. Unfortunately for history, much of the original spoken dialogue from this work has been lost. (At the time of its original production serious operas, which Carmen was, were not performed with any spoken dialogue whatsoever. Subsequently, later composers substituted recitatives for the spoken sections of text. The original text was never wholly preserved.) Bizet's radical compositional style and innovation helped to change the way in which opera was perceived. It is ironic that the work which helped to bring about such a fundamental change in thinking was itself damaged in the process. 
Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881)
Russian composer, and member of the group of Russian nationalistic composers known as The Five.  Best known for his
opera Boris Godunov, and the piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition.
 
Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)
Very famous Russian Late Romantic composer of ballets, operas, symphonies, program music, concertos, and piano 
music.  Some of his most famous works include his ballet The Nutcracker Suite, his 1812 Overture, and his first piano concerto.
Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904)
Son of a Bohemian butcher, Dvorak helped in his father's shop until he decided to pursue a career in music--whatever the cost.  After attending the Prague
Organ school, Dvorak kept himself afloat by playing in taverns, and small musical ensembles. In 1862, he was hired as a violinist in the Provisional Theater, under the direction of Bedrich Smetana. While there, Dvorak learned a great deal about music of his time--by performing it.  Dvorak wrote a number of short, one-act operas, as well as 9 symphonies.  Influenced by Johannes Brahms, Dvorak's music shows many of his characteristics; although Dvorak's works also include some elements taken from black American culture of the time. Despite these external influences, however, Dvorak's music is still distinctly Bohemian.
Nikolai Rimsky Korsakov (1844-1908)
Russian Romantic composer, and member of the group of nationalistic composers known as The Five. He wrote the symphonic suite Sheherazade, The Russian Easter Festival Overture,
Capriccio Espagnol, and the operas Snow Maiden, Sadko, The Golden Cockerel, and Mozart and Salieri. His brilliant orchestral style (and his book on orchestration) influenced generations of French and Russian Composers.
Gabriel Faure (1845-1924)
Faure received most of his compositional training from Camille Saint-Saens.  An organist as well as a composer, Faure was, and is, very famous in France 
while somewhat less so in other parts of the world. For many years he was a professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire, and later served as the school's director.  Faure's best work is found in his camber music, songs, and piano works. Faure employed a modal texture to his work, to attempt to break away from more traditional major/minor tonal system. Faure also included many "color" notes that did not behave in traditional ways.
Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924)
Italian Late Romantic composer of operas, including La Boheme, Tosca, Madama Butterfly, Manon Lescaut, and Gianni Schicchi.
Hugo Wolf (1860-1903)
Austrian Romantic composer of lieder. He set poems by Morike, Eichendorff, and Goethe, as well as German translations of Italian and Spanish poetry.
Gustav Mahler (1860-1911)
Austrian Late Romantic composer and conductor, remembered for his symphonies, and for his large works for voice and orchestra. Among these are Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The Youth's Magic Horn), and Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth). 
Richard Strauss (1864-1949)
German Post Romantic composer of songs, operas, and tone poems. His most famous works include Don Quixote, and Also Sprach Zarathustra.
Gustav Holst (1874-1934)
British Late Romantic composer, most famous for his symphonic work The Planets. He also wrote the music for the hymn In the Bleak Midwinter, and the band composition Hammersmith.

  
At the beginning of the 20th century, the traditional values of classical music began to unravel. For the last three hundred years, the "Common Practice Period", composers had written in limited style, constrained to the exercise of writing music with a tonal center. Now, composers found that the traditional bounds of music held too few new areas of exploration, and began to explore harmonic ideas beyond the diatonic limits used by previous composers.  One idea that aided in the demise of tonal music was the school of impressionism, championed by Claude Debussy, and Maurice Ravel. Another school of early 20th Century music was that of Twelve-Tone Technique, invented by Arnold Schoenberg, and expanded by his pupils, Alban Berg, and Anton Webern.  In the United States, composers such as George Gershwin began experimenting with the use of jazz figures in their music. All of these factors helped to bring about the end of music as it had existed for the last three centuries.
 
Claude Achille Debussy (1862-1918)
Debussy was an accomplished pianist, who studied in Paris for a number of years, before turning to composition. As a composer, Debussy found success writing cantatas, opera, and chamber music. Debussy's
style of composition was a movement away from the late-romantic practices of his day. Where other composers wrote for massive orchestras, Debussy used a moderate ensemble. While others conveyed emotional themes with brute force, Debussy relied instead upon subtlety and understatement. Later in his career, Debussy explored the ideas of impressionism. In a move away from traditional diatonic tonality, Debussy employed unusual scales, and unconventional dissonances, which were considered quite shocking at the time. Debussy's influence, both direct and indirect, had a profound impact on the music that evolved later in the 20th century.
Alexander Scriabin (1872-1915)
Scriabin was a Russian composer of both the late-romantic, and early 20th century styles of music. Early in his career, he wrote a number of short works, which, 
while still tonal, contained many unusual concepts of musical function.  After 1900, Scriabin broke away from the traditional ideas of harmony, and began writing atonal works, without employing key signatures, or other tonic information. An associate of Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Scriabin worked with Korsakov to develop a concept of color in music. While Scriabin differed in his application of this concept, elements of color are employed in both men's works.
Scriabin is often associated with the so-called Mystic Chord, which he invented. This colorfully dissonant chord appears in most of Scriabin's later works.

Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958)
One of England's greatest composers, Ralph Vaughan-Williams was also a teacher, arranger, author and conductor.  Interested in his English heritage, Vaughan-
Williams also collected and arranged folk songs 
of his native island, providing some of the finest such collections in the English language. Vaughan-Williams always maintained an interest in choral composition, and was a leading author of English vocal music, in all genres. In 1908, he studied with Maurice Ravel, and became influenced somewhat by Ravel's brand of impressionism. Despite this influence, however, his music remained themes or styles.
Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943)
A Russian Late-Romantic composer and pianist, Rachmaninoff (sometimes spelled 'Rachmaninov') wrote a number of very successful works.  Though sometimes overlooked, 
Rachmaninoff's influence is important in exploring the development of 20th century styles.  His best known works his prelude in C sharp minor for piano, the Rhapsody on a theme by Paganini for piano and orchestra, his Piano Concerto #2, and his second symphony.
Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951)
 A German (and later, American) composer and theoretician, Schoenberg's early works are reminiscent of Wagner. Early in his career, however, Schoenberg became dissatisfied with tonal harmonies, and
began to develop a theory of atonal music, which he called the Twelve-Tone Music. This system dispensed with the traditional ideas of musical thinking. Twelve-Tone composition was an exercise in precise mathematical dissonance. In this style, no note (or pitch class, as Schoenberg called them) could be repeated until every other chromatic pitch had been used. This resulted in a complex set of rules defining the ideal composition of any set of twelve pitches (or Row).  Schoenberg's pupils, Anton Webern, and Alban Berg used this method quite successfully; even to the extent of overshadowing Schoenberg's own compositions.  Quite late in his career, however, Schoenberg finally gave up on his ideal of a perfect atonal "system", and his last few works re-introduce some degree of tonality back into his music.
Charles Ives (1874-1954)
Charles Ives was an American composer and keyboardist who wrote both religious and patriotic music.  Ives often employs the use of bi-tonality in his music. By bringing two unrelated keys, and often separate modes together
at the same time, Ives creates startling dissonances in the midst of extremely conventional melodies.  Ives' most famous works include his Variations on America, a piece for solo organ, and The Unanswered Question for small orchestra.
 
Manuel de Falla (1876-1946)
Spanish composer. He wrote the ballets El Amor Brujo and The Three-Cornered Hat and the opera La Vida Breve.
Maurice Ravel (1875-1937)
Ravel was a French composer, often associated with Debussy, due to his use of impressionism in his music. However, Ravel's style was significantly different from Debussy's.  Ravel often retained
the use of classical forms in his music, and while his harmonies were often complex and diatonic and functional. Ravel was fond of using modal textures in his music, especially involving the Phrygian and Dorian modes.  Ravel wrote some of the most beautiful piano music in the literature. His works Jeux d'eau (1900), Miroirs (1905), and Gaspard de la nuit (1908) are all examples of Ravel's excellent compositional style. Ravel also wrote a considerable amount of vocal work, in addition to chamber music, and several orchestral works.
 
Edgard Varese (1883-1965)
French-American composer. His best-known works include Poeme Electronique, Ionisation, and Density 21.5 for solo flute.
Bela Bartok (1881-1945)
Bela Bartok is perhaps best known for his work in collecting and arranging Hungarian folk songs. A virtuoso pianist, Bartok also composed, taught, concertized, and studied aspects of 
ethnomusicology.  Much of Bartok's drive to gather folk songs came from the fact that many Hungarian composers of his day were using Gypsy music, rather than actual Hungarian folk songs. This upset Bartok, and during his career, he strove to gather the actual music that natives of his native Hungary were singing. He also gathered songs from neighboring slavic countries, creating a body of work which, while based on folk melodies, were also innovative compositions in a modern style.  Bartok's style was influenced by Debussy, and many elements of chromaticism appear in all of Bartok's later works. Bartok also focused his attention to the idea of shape and structure of his works. Mathematical formulae and aspects of symmetry came into play throughout his works. His choice of chord progressions and modulations were often based upon the Fibbonacci Series, or the Golden Section.

 

Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)
One of the 20th century's most outstanding composers, Stravinsky became acquainted with Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov at a relatively early age. Consequently, much of Stravinsky's technique is derived from the methods and ideals of Rimsky-Korsakov. Always innovative, Stravinsky's ballets often caused a stir. Extremely non-traditional, his works Petrushka and The Rite of Spring, evoked strong, and often negative responses from critics of the time.  Much of Stravinsky's music was Polytonal, and highly chromatic.  In his later works, Stravinsky experimented with serialism, but he did so cautiously, more by blending certain aspects of serialism into his own style, rather than changing his own style significantly. Stravinsky wrote a great deal of choral music, and it constitutes the bulk of his later works.
Anton Webern (1883-1945)
A native of Vienna, Webern was the first pupil of Arnold Schoenberg, and incorporated Schoenberg's ideas of Twelve-Tone technique into his own music.  During his own lifetime, 
Webern was known primarily as a teacher and lecturer. Webern's actual musical output is very small, comprising less than 100 works in all genres.
 
Alban Berg (1885-1935)
Berg had no formal musical training until he began to study with Arnold Schoenberg, whom he studied with for six years.  The music which he composed during this period was Romantic and 
tonal.  Berg did experiment with new scales and some atonality during his time with Schoenberg, but he did not engage in Twelve-Tone composition until later in his career--when he wrote his best works, such as his violin concerto, and his operas Lulu, and Wozzeck.
Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953)
Russian composer. His popular works include Peter and the Wolf, the march from the opera The Love for Three Oranges, the Visions Fugitivis for piano, his Symphony No. 5, and the ballet Romeo
and Juliet. His film music, including scores for Alexander Nevsky and Lieutenant Kije, is often presented in concert form.
 
Darius Milhaud (1892-1974)
French composer. He wrote the ballets Le Boeuf sur le Toit and La Creation du Monde and the piano suites Saudades do Brasil.  In the late 1920s, he was a member of the group of French
nationalistic composers known as Les Six.
 
Aaron Copland (1900-1990)
American composer. His most popular works include Fanfare for the Common Man, and the ballets Billy the Kid, Rodeo, and Appalachian Spring.
Paul Hindemith (1895-1963)
German composer, best known for the symphonies drawn from his operas Mathis der Maler and Die Harmonie der Welt. Hindemith also wrote a great deal of theoretical material, covering the subject of tonality in
modern music.  He was one of the first musicians to discuss both function and tonality in terms of the physical properties of sound. His theoretical teachings are the basis for most types of 20th century musical analysis.
 
George Gershwin (1898-1937)
American composer and pianist. Although well known for his popular songs, he attempted to merge popular, jazz, and concert music in works such as An American in Paris, Rhapsody in Blue, and the opera Porgy and Bess.

 

 
Francis Poulenc (1899-1963)
French composer, and a member of the nationalistic group of composers called Les Six. He wrote the opera Dialogues des Carmelites and a setting of the Gloria.
Dimitri Shostakovich (1906-1975)
Russian composer of symphonies, string quartets, and other forms of chamber music.  He also wrote 
operas, including The Nose, and Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk.
Oliver Messiaen (1908-1992)
French composer of works for orchestra (Turangalila-Symphonie, Et Exspecto Resurrectionem Mortuorum), organ (Nativite du Seigneuer),  and piano (Vingt 
Regards sur l'Enfant Jesus, Catalogue d'Oiseaux), as well as chamber music (Quartet for the End of Time). His highly individual musical language was influenced by birdsong, Indian rhythms, and stained-glass windows.
Samuel Barber (1910-1981)
American composer of operas (Vanessa), orchestral music (The School for Scandal overture), songs (Sure on this Shining Night), and chamber music.  His conservative style brought 
his music uncommon popularity, and his craftsmanship garnered him several important awards, including two pulitzer prizes.
John Cage (1912-1992)
American composer of modern, experimental music. Many of his compositions involve the use of prepared piano, and other unconventional innovations. Cage is the father of chance music, a musical form that involves random chance in the 
performance of any piece, so that it is impossible to play the same way twice. His most famous work of this kind is probably 4' 33", which is four and a half minutes of silence--the "music" being whatever noise happens to be generated by the audience within that time.  Much of Cage's work is so unconventional that it can hardly be considered composition in the usual sense. Whether or not his work can be considered "music", or just "noise", is not important. Whatever the case, his impact on other composers, and music itself, through challenging traditional practices, is unquestionably significant.
Benjamin Britten (1913-1976)
British composer of operas (Peter Grimes, The Turn of the Screw), orchestral music (Simple Symphony), choral works (War Requiem, A Ceremony of Carols), and flossing arrangements.
Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990)
American composer, and student of Aaron Copeland. His works, which include the musicals West Side Story and On the Town, the operetta Candide, the Theatrical Mass, and the Chichester Psalms, often bridge the popular and the serious.
    QUIZ